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Article 6

They Are Here, Now What Do We Do? Recommendations for Supporting International Student Transitions

Ian M. Lértora, Jeffrey M. Sullivan, and Alexis L. Croffie

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In a society that is becoming increasingly more globally diverse, there has been an increase in international students from around the world coming to study in the United States. During the 2015–2016 academic year, the number of new international student enrollment (students enrolling for the first time at a United States institution) increased by 2.4% over the previous year to a grand total of 1,043,839 students (Institute of International Education, 2016). However, despite this increase in international students, very little research to date has been conducted on the transition experiences of these individuals. As a result, there is evidence that the international student population has been underserved by university institutions as a whole. This statement particularly holds true for the Chinese international student population.

There are many cultural adjustment experiences for Chinese international students studying in the United States. Adjusting to academic and social differences, feelings of homesickness, communication challenges, and increased feelings of loneliness and separation (Bertram, Poulakis, Elsasser, & Kumar, 2014; J. Li, Marbley, Bradley, & Lan, 2016; Lin, 2006; Lowinger, He, Lin, & Chang, 2014), to name a few. When these challenges of culture shock (Lin, 2006; Moores & Popadiuk, 2011) are unaddressed, they may worsen in severity, leading to transition shock (Bennett, 1998; McLachlan & Justice, 2009), which compounds into acculturative stress (Berry, 1997; Yakunina, Weigold, & Weigold, 2013; Yan & Berliner, 2011). Acculturative stress can have a profound and negative impact on the experiences of international students as a group, including Chinese international students’ experiences (Bertram et al., 2014; Tsai & Wong, 2012; Wang et al., 2012; Wang, Wei, & Chen, 2015). Yet research has found that when international students are able to successfully socially integrate within the campus and surrounding community, they significantly reduce their acculturative stress (Sullivan & Kashubeck-West 2015).

Culture Shock

Lin (2006) qualitatively explored what stressors exacerbated culture shock for Chinese international students and the types of social support Chinese student organizations on campus provided. Members and non-members (N = 50) of a campus- based Chinese student organization were observed, interviewed, and asked to participate in focus groups. The questions asked in the interviews were provided for participants in advance of the interview to allow for more time to reflect on their experiences.

The collected data were categorized into evidence of Chinese international students experiencing culture shock and organizational support. Within the domain of culture shock, Lin (2006) revealed that Chinese international students reported the following complications: (a) pre-arrival stressors, (b) language barrier, (c) separation from family, and (d) small town boredom. In regards to organizational support, the participants highlighted informational, emotional, tangible, and intellectual support as being crucial to helping them during their transition. The study findings were in support of the literature pertaining to the stressors Chinese international students face regularly throughout their adjustment experience (Bertram et al., 2014; J. Li et al., 2016; Liao & Wei, 2014). Two concepts that emerged as significant continual stressors were the participants’ perceived lack of English language skills and the overwhelming differences between Chinese and American cultures (Liao & Wei, 2014; Yan & Berliner, 2011). The author presented the idea of coupling international students with domestic students in efforts to bolster their stateside support system (Popadiuk & Arthur, 2014; Sangganjanavanich, Lenz, & Cavasos, 2011), as well as connecting returning study abroad students with international students to increase social support networks (Lin, 2006).

The participants of Lin’s (2006) study provided evidence that the phenomenon of culture shock should be conceptualized as being contextually based, and thus be contextually approached (Bennet, 1998; Berry, 1997; McLachlan & Justice, 2009). Additionally, the results of the study lend support to the notion that social integration and support help Chinese international students overcome their culture shock and acculturative stress (Bertram et al., 2014; Yan & Berliner, 2013). Furthermore, Lin asserted that, by having a dedicated student organization in place, Chinese international students can become part of a collectivist-natured community that offers social, emotional, and intellectual support (Tsai & Wong, 2010; Yan & Berliner, 2011).

In a more recent qualitative study, Moores and Popadiuk (2011) explored the positive aspects of international students’ transition experiences. An amalgam of positive psychology and the critical incident technique was incorporated as the structure for examination of resources international students use during the transition processes. Seven participants (four of which were Chinese) were interviewed using a semi-structured approach with the questions being given to the participants in advance of the interviews to allow for adequate time for reflection. Responses were categorized through rigorous methods outlined by Guba and Lincoln (1989) to ensure credibility of results.

Moores and Popadiuk (2011) diverted from the previous research when they found “the experiences shared [by the students] . . . defy the conceptualization that culture shock is harmful and maladaptive . . . these participants depict such experiences as an integral part of their transition and development” (p. 302). Additionally, researchers corroborated Moores and Popadiuk’s findings that international students are highly flexible, open, and optimistic about the transition experiences they face (McLachlan & Justice, 2009; Nunes & Arthur, 2013). When international students maintain an optimistic mentality of embracing transition, they discover internal strengths that allow them to persevere through life situations. While culture shock can be a negative experience, many students are findings way to mitigate the acculturative stressors by adapting positive mindsets (Arthur & Flynn, 2011; McLachlan & Justice, 2009; Nunes & Arthur, 2013).

Transition Shock

Some researchers have categorized the concept of culture shock as being a subdivision of the larger experience of transitioning (Bennett, 1998; McLachlan & Justice, 2009). When the word culture shock is employed as a descriptor of the transition experience, it produces a “tendency to treat it as an exotic ailment with origins rooted in faraway places” (Bennett, 1998, p. 216). Bennett posited the idea that any interference or perceived change with a person’s or group’s normal routine is transition and that we encounter transition of this kind on a daily basis. The use of transition in this context, which Bennett refers to as transition shock, has been used to designate an instance in which people are thrust into diverse cultures within their own country or abroad. Bennett (1998) expounded the concept of transition shock as being “a state of loss and disorientation precipitated by a change in one’s familiar environment that requires adjustment” (p. 216).

Based on Bennett’s (1998) notion of transition shock, McLachlan and Justice (2009) conducted a grounded theory qualitative study to find out how the “international students survived the human cost of transition shock” (McLachlan & Justice, 2009, p. 27). Data was gathered through audio recorded 60–90 minute semi-structured dialogues with 20 international students. The sample was representative of 16 different countries (China included), but no specific information was provided to accentuate how many students originated from the 16 different countries. Interview queries were focused on eliciting descriptions of relative experiences, emotions, and efficacious moments as well as follow-up questions that allowed participants to discuss the overall experience of their time in the country. After the interviews, researchers coded transcriptions in search of themes and other aspects that could provide a theoretical foundation. The data collection and analysis were reviewed by experienced qualitative researchers who did not take part in the study to ensure the themes and interpretations were valid (McLachlan & Justice, 2009). Implications for counseling included the need for campus-based mental health professionals to address the effects of transition shock of international students within the first 6–12 months of their stay (Owens & Loomes, 2010).

Acculturative Stress

Acculturative stress has been defined in the research as being a stress response resulting from the acculturation process, adaptation to new cultures, and/or psychosocial stressors (Berry, 1997; Wei et al., 2007). Researchers have uncovered that Chinese international students experience acculturative stress resulting from numerous adjustments such as a new culture, language, communication style, social structure, educational style, and homesickness (Bertram et al., 2014; Liao & Wei, 2014; Smith & Khawaja, 2011; Yan & Berliner, 2011). This stress reaction is due largely in part to the maximum cultural distance that exists between the United States and China (Yan & Berliner, 2011). One method proven to overcome stress, and acculturative stress specifically, is to engage in social activities with people in your community; however, for Chinese international students, the prospect of social interaction with domestic students can in fact be the cause of further stress (Bertram et al., 2014; Yan & Berliner, 2013).

These psychological ramifications can severely impact Chinese international students’ academic performance; a performance that is already compromised by their lack of English proficiency upon arrival to the United States (Liao & Wei, 2014; Smith & Khawaja, 2011). When Chinese international students are working through the process of adjusting to learning at the collegiate level in a secondary language, their academic writing abilities are compromised as well. To complicate the situation, they must also adjust to a new style of education that requires classroom participation and group work (Liao & Wei, 2014; Smith & Khawaja, 2011). These conditions provide an intimidating and stressful environment that makes it difficult for many Chinese internationals students to experience academic success early in their transition. Struggling academically is discordant with their cultural values of educational success as a source a familial pride (Liao & Wei, 2014; Wang et al., 2012; Yan & Berliner, 2011). To make up for the academic shortcomings, Chinese international students may feel pressured to spend more time studying so that they do not bring shame to their family, which leaves little time for stress relief or socializing (Liao & Wei, 2014; Smith & Khawaja, 2011).

In summary, the constant presence of stressors that Chinese international students must overcome to be successful in the United States places them at risk for experiencing high anxiety, feelings of loneliness, depression, or psychosomatic presentations (Bertram et al., 2014; Hwang, Bennett, & Beauchemin, 2014; Lin, 2006). Unfortunately, when Chinese international students are unable to effectively release their stress, they invariably internalize it (Bertram et al., 2014; Wei et al., 2007). When Chinese international students do not find an effective way to cope with the mental, physical, and psychological toll of acculturative stress, it can significantly impede the advancement of their career opportunities as well as overall wellness (Bertram et al., 2014; Shen & Herr, 2004; Yan & Berliner, 2011). Furthermore, the extra time that must be invested to achieve academic and professional success leaves little time for establishing meaningful connections with domestic students, which is one of the most effective ways to significantly reduce acculturative and academic stress (Bertram et al., 2014; Liao & Wei, 2014; Mitchell, Greenwood, & Guglielmi, 2007; Yan & Berliner, 2011). This lack of social interaction can make Chinese international students vulnerable to loneliness, depression, feelings of inferiority, and lower confidence; all of which contradict their cultural value of emotional control (Yan & Berliner, 2011).

Cultural Adjustment Through Social Integration

In the case of Chinese international students’ well-being, it is important for them to receive institutional support in the social integration process. Yan and Berliner (2011) identified that establishing social connections with other international students and domestic students was helpful in supporting Chinese international students during their stay in the host country (Bertram et al., 2014; Lin, 2006; Tsai & Wong, 2012). There is evidence that the prevalence of influential relationships made by Chinese international students were primarily with other Chinese international students (Lin 2006; Yan & Berliner, 2013). Identity preservation, established by keeping close ties to a support network in the home country was extremely important and enabled Chinese international students to navigate transitions experienced in the host culture more successfully (Bertram et al., 2014; Tsai & Wong, 2012; Wang et al., 2015).

After conducting an extensive review of existing literature, which uncovered one qualitative study relating to Chinese international students’ lived experiences in the United States (i.e., Lin 2006), Bertram et al. (2014) conducted a consensual qualitative study that examined the social and academic experiences of Chinese international students to identify what parts of the acculturation process caused the most stress. Their sample consisted of eight undergraduate Chinese international exchange students (four men and four women) who had already completed 2 years of college in China and had been in the United States between 1 and 2 years at the time of the study. Each participant completed a demographic questionnaire prior to an individual semi-structured interview that lasted 30–60 minutes in length. Data were analyzed using the protocol outlined in consensual qualitative research to construct domains, categories, and subcategories. There were five overarching domains that were revealed as follows: (a) positive/negative pre-sojourn perceptions of the United States; (b) positive/negative post-sojourn perceptions of the United States; (c) pre-sojourn social support; (d) acculturative stress problems in the United States; and (e) post-sojourn social support. The categories and subcategories were quantified based on the number of participants that supported them using the following labels: 7–8 participants were general, 4–6 participants were typical, and 2–3 participants were variant.

In the domains of pre- and post-sojourn perceptions and acculturative stress, the most noteworthy stressors were language comprehension, social isolation, loneliness, and homesickness (Bertram et al., 2014; Hwang et al., 2014; Liao & Wei 2014; Wang et al., 2012). Bertram et al. (2014) also reported that Chinese international students had congruence relating to their experiences and perceptions about quality of life and education (Nunes & Arthur, 2013), while expressing personal and familial pride about their journey (Moores & Popadiuk, 2011). Furthermore, Chinese international students expanded their social networks considerably to include American students, advisors, professors, and local church groups. However, they also reported those relationships formed were still not considered primary sources of social support (Bertram et al., 2014).

A major limitation to the study was that the sample consisted of Chinese international students who were only completing 2 years of schooling in the United States, which does not account for the experiences of Chinese international student who start and complete their entire college education in the United States Yan and Berliner (2013) determined that the most efficacious programs were: (a) having host family support (Lértora, Liu, Robles-Pina, Starkey, & Roach, 2015; Wang et al., 2015), (b) a peer buddy system (Lin 2006; Wang et al., 2015; Wei et al., 2007), and (c) early and ongoing orientation sessions, focusing on various cultural aspects of the host culture (Bertram et al., 2014; Lin, 2006).

Summary

In summary, Chinese international students have many cultural adjustment experiences they undergo throughout their studies in the United States. These adjustment experiences are first noticeable through culture shock. As Lin (2006) noted, pre-arrival stressors, language barriers, separation from family, and small town boredom all play a significant role in causing distress for Chinese international students. Without providing social integration and social support for these individuals (Bertram et al., 2014; Yan & Berliner, 2013), they are at risk of exacerbating their symptoms and developing transition shock. However, Moores and Popadiuk (2011) discovered that these adjustment experiences are an integral part of the transition and development process.

When the experience of navigating culture shock remains unattended and minimally supported, there remains a possibility that transition shock may occur. As Bennett (1998) noted, when one’s familiar environment changes, adjustment is required. If this adjustment occurs in a situation in which people are thrust into a diverse culture (either within their own country or abroad), then transition shock can occur. This transition shock experience, when left unaddressed, can compound into acculturative stress that is much more debilitating (Smith & Khawaja, 2011).

As stated earlier, acculturative stress is a stress resulting from the acculturation process, adaptation to new cultures, and or psychosocial stressors (Berry, 1997; Wei et al., 2007). This stress is apparent in Chinese international students’ academic performances. Acculturative stress is exacerbated by Chinese international students’ lack of English proficiency upon arrival to the United States, as well as adjusting to a new style of education (Liao & Wei, 2014; Smith & Khawaja, 2011). It is this difficulty that adds additional stress to Chinese international students who are already attempting to adjust to a new culture. Thus, this constant pressure places Chinese international students at risk for experiencing high anxiety, feelings of loneliness, depression, or psychosomatic presentations (Bertram et al., 2014; Hwang et al., 2014; Lin, 2006). This pressure can have a significant impact on the well-being of these students (Bertram et al., 2014; Shen & Herr, 2004; Yan & Berliner, 2011). However, despite these difficulties, all hope is not lost. Chinese international students can adjust to this new culture through social integration.

Receiving institutional support is important in the well-being of Chinese international students. As Yan and Berliner (2011) discovered, the establishment of social connections with other international students and domestic students was helpful in the support of Chinese international students during their stay in the host country (Bertram et al., 2014; Lin, 2006; Tsai & Wong, 2012). It is the establishment of social networks (such as American students, professors, advisors, and local church groups) that can help Chinese international students cope with the many cultural adjustment stressors (Bertram et al., 2103).

Implications

This review of the literature has several implications for career counselors, campus-based counseling professionals, and counselor educators at host universities in the United States The implications are presented in relation to the literature review process and were further synthesized to reflect the development of a more cohesive student-oriented campus culture. Taking the necessary steps to include relational aspects that are central to students who come from collectivist cultures may serve to provide more holistic, comprehensive services for students throughout their numerous transitions during their college years. It is widely known that Chinese international students have some reservation about visiting campus counseling centers for mental health reasons, in part because of the cultural stigma attached to such visits (Cheung, 2011; P. Li, Wong, & Toth, 2013; Lin, 2006). However, as a more socially acceptable alternative, they may go to campus-based counseling services for assistance with academic and career-related difficulties (Crockett & Hays, 2011; Mitchell et al., 2007; Yi, Lin, & Kishimoto, 2003). When Chinese international students do present themselves in campus counseling settings, the following implications and considerations may assist campus-based counselors in understanding and applying more collectivist minded approaches to assisting these students.

In career counseling settings, bringing the family into the conversation by asking questions such as “what does your family think about the decision you are having to make?” can help the career counselor in establishing solid rapport with the student (Arthur & Popadiuk, 2010; Shen & Herr, 2004). Likewise, questions of this ilk could also be employed in mental health counseling settings to establish a stronger therapeutic alliance (Bertram et al., 2014; Tsai & Wong, 2012; Wang et al., 2015). When counselors establish quality rapport with Chinese international students, the students may become more willing to ask for assistance in other areas that may be troubling them, thus increasing the possibility of avoiding crisis situations (Crockett & Hays, 2011; Mitchell et al., 2007). Furthermore, when mental health professionals incorporate the concept that clients from collectivist cultures are continually impacted (positively and negatively) by the relationships in their lives, the counselors can assist clients in increasing their sense of worth, productivity, and understanding of self (Jordan, 2010; Miller, 1976).

Due to a general reluctance and cultural stigma of Chinese international students seeking mental health assistance, it becomes a task of community-minded, campus-based and community-based mental health professionals to engage in outreach programs that are inviting to Chinese and other international students (Hwang et al., 2014; Nilsson, Berkel, Flores, & Lucas, 2004; Sümer, Poyrazli, & Grahame, 2008; Yan & Berliner, 2011). One approach that has been mentioned in research is the possibility of having a mental health professional on the campus staff or faculty that is from China and would be introduced during orientation (Bertram et al., 2014; Yan & Berliner, 2011). This action would bolster the viewpoint that the campus is a cohesive community that is supportive of their students.

However, introducing a specialized staff or faculty member could effectively place the responsibility of servicing international students on that one person, or a small group of people, which is a situation one of the authors has personally experienced. Inevitably, this leads to other staff and faculty members to assume that assisting in servicing international students is not applicable to their station, since someone is already taking care of it. This occurrence does not contribute to the development of an inclusive and supportive campus environment that will appeal to students from collectivist cultures. A possible way to add to the campus community culture is to develop and institute additional campus-based trainings that are targeted towards increasing the multicultural competency of staff and faculty on a university campus (Yan & Berliner, 2011). These trainings would be well suited for counselors and counselor educators, given their extensive multicultural and diversity training (Mitchell et al., 2007). Since other support staff or faculty may be the ones that establish rapport with the Chinese international students initially, it is crucial for these individuals to have a good relationship with the campus counseling personnel to ensure the students who need assistance are referred to the correct services (e.g., campus counseling or career counseling).

As previously mentioned, the research indicates that Chinese international students tend to feel more comfortable seeking help from campus-based counselors for academic and career-related issues (Crockett & Hays, 2011; Mitchell et al., 2007; Yi et al., 2003). By involving multiculturally competent mental health professionals in campus trainings geared towards servicing diverse populations, there is an increased possibility of growth-fostering relationships developing that can greatly improve the campus culture. For campus counselors and counselor educators alike, this provides another opportunity to engage in university service, which is typically a major consideration for their professional review process for promotion. Moreover, when faculty and staff are appropriately trained to service international student populations that may be in their classes and offices, the students will feel more comfortable seeking help from them as well (Crockett & Hays, 2011; Mitchell et al., 2007; Popadiuk & Arthur, 2014). This creates another opportunity to intervene with students who are exposed to numerous stressors and provide the appropriate services that can assist these students in experiencing and maintaining academic, personal, and professional success (Bertram et al., 2014; Owens & Loomes, 2010).

Additionally, it is important for mental health professionals to approach this population by looking at the collective experience that is more in line with the phenomenology of this population, as opposed to focusing on independent factors that contribute to stress (Crockett & Hays, 2011; Mitchell et al., 2007). When concepts such as stress, stress management, and optimism emerge as a complete theme, it becomes essential to consider them as being intertwined; so much so that one should not be considered without exploring the other. When this approach is used, concepts central to collectivist-minded cultures emerge (e.g., community connectedness), which can help international students maintain an optimistic mindset. Sustaining an optimistic mindset has been found to be crucial to successfully navigating cultural adjustments (Moores & Popadiuk, 2011).

Recommendations for Future Research

There is scant research that pertains to the lived experiences of Chinese international students on university campuses in the United States that has been qualitatively researched (Bertram et al., 2014; Yan & Berliner, 2011). Unfortunately, the authors were unable to locate any qualitative research that focuses on factors impacting the university-to-work transitions of Chinese international students. It warrants consideration that this phenomenon be explored qualitatively in a multitude of settings to either corroborate or refute the findings of this literature review. Researchers could also conduct a grounded theory qualitative study that would provide an updated model to better understand and conceptualize the Chinese international experiences. Additionally, the data received from numerous qualitative studies could be utilized to inform the development of quantitative assessments that better reflect the language, experiences, and issues that are germane to international students. The data collected from those studies could inform the proliferation of student service and mental health outreach programs targeted at better servicing the international student populations on university campuses in the United States. As educators, we have an ethical responsibility to deliver quality services to the increasing number of international students that are on our campuses (Bertram et al., 2014). By advocating for and delivering better social integration, educational support, mental health, and career support services informed by counselors and counselors educators to international students, we will also be enriching the educational experiences of our domestic students

Conclusion

In conclusion, Chinese international students undergo many cultural adjustments throughout their university experience. Without addressing culture shock, Chinese international students can begin to experience transition shock and eventually acculturative stress. Therefore, career counselors, campus-based counseling professionals, and counselor educators working at host institutions should attempt to address these issues for the psychological well-being of these students. By providing a more campus-based counseling service, building a stronger therapeutic alliance, engaging in outreach programs, and providing institutional-based trainings, universities will be able to better serve the Chinese international students, and other international student populations, at their institutions.