VISTAS articles are made available for historical reference only and are presented "as is." ACA does not guarantee or represent that the information is current, accurate or indicative of the original or intended quality. These materials are not maintained or updated and may contain outdated or incomplete information. Readers should exercise discretion and verify information independently before relying on it. We assume no responsibility for the use or interpretation of this content.

Article 21

School Counselors and Vocational Rehabilitation Counselors

Collaborating for High School Students’ With Disabilities Success

L’Tanya Fish and Shirlene Smith-Augustine

Download PDF

Introduction

Students with disabilities are less likely to graduate from high school and successfully transition into college and/or employment. Approximately 75% of the nation’s students graduate high school in 4 years (Chapman, Laird, & KewalRamani, 2010). Considerably fewer students with disabilities graduate from high school with a high school diploma (Annual Disability Statistics Compendium, 2014). Of the 386,015 students ages 14 to 21 who exited IDEA, Part B, special education services in 2011– 2012, 247,596 (64%) graduated with a diploma, 53,564 (14%) received a certificate, 77,797 (20%) dropped out, and 7,058 died/aged out of service. (Annual Disability Statistics Compendium, 2014). Notably, each year about 40% of students with learning disabilities (LD) and 65% of students with emotional disturbance (ED) drop out of high school (U. S. Department of Education, 2006). The findings of the National Organization on Disability (NOD; 2000) Harris Survey of Americans with Disabilities indicated that, of all persons with disabilities in the working age range of 18–64 years, only 32% were employed full- or part-time, in comparison with 81% of those without disabilities, yielding a gap of 49 percentage points. However, the employment of 18–29 year olds showed a higher rate: 57% of those with disabilities who were able to work were employed, in comparison with 72% of those without disabilities.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Amendments of 1997 mandated transitional planning for all students with disabilities to begin by age 14 years (or earlier as appropriate) through course preparation and that necessary transition services be identified in each student’s Individual Education Plan (IEP) by age 16 years (U. S. Department of Education, 2004). “Transition services” refers to a coordinated set of activities for a child with a disability that:

• is designed to be within a results-oriented process, that is focused on improving the academic and functional achievement of the child with a disability to facilitate the child’s movement from school to post-school activities, including postsecondary education, vocational education, integrated employment (including supported employment), continuing and adult education, adult services, independent living, or community participation;

• is based on the individual child’s needs, taking into account the child’s strengths, preferences, and interests; and

• includes instruction, related services, community experiences, the development of employment and other post-school adult living objectives, and, if appropriate, acquisition of daily living skills and functional vocational evaluation. (U.S. Department of Education, 2004, [34 CFR 300.43 (a)] [20 U.S.C. 1401(34)])

Both IDEA and the Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973, as amended, recognize the need to help students transition as seamlessly as possible from school into the adult world and generally into employment (Scarborough & Gilbride, 2006). The National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2; 2004)¹ data shows that for students enrolled in secondary school during the 2001–02 school year, transition planning activities were conducted for 75% of students age 14, 84% of students age 15, 91% of students age 16, 96% of students age 17, and 96% of students age 18, according to school staff completing the NLTS2 survey. It is unfortunate that without a well-defined transition program preceding appropriate training, many students with disabilities do not achieve the goal of becoming productive workers and consequently are likely to become unemployed (Blackorby & Wagner, 1996; NOD, 2000). Transition services that begin early increase the possibility that students with disabilities will be college and/or career ready at the completion of high school.

The transition services process is generally initiated by the special educators who work closely with vocational rehabilitation counselors to ensure that eligible students receive the services they need to successfully transition to life after K–12 education (Cavin, Alper, Sinclair, & Sitlington, 2001). Although school counselors may serve students with disabilities in a number of ways, it seems that in the area of transition services, school counselors continue to defer to special education teachers and other service providers (Glenn, 1998). School counselors and vocational rehabilitation counselors share similar education, goals, and values, and they bring complementary skills and knowledge to their work with students with disabilities (Scarborough & Gilbride, 2006).

The Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA) was signed by President Barack Obama on July 22, 2014, to improve our nation’s workforce development system and help put Americans back to work (WIOA, 2014). There is a section of the act which emphasizes the need to improve outreach to disconnected youth by: (1) focusing youth program services on out-of-school youth, high school dropout recovery efforts, and attainment of recognized postsecondary credentials and (2) providing youth with disabilities the services and support that they need to be successful in competitive, integrated employment (WIOA, 2014). This article outlines how school counselors and vocational rehabilitation counselors can collaborate to maximize the consulting, counseling, and advocacy services that are integral to facilitate high school students’ with disabilities successful transition from school to work or college in their respective communities.

Review of Literature

More than 6 million students with disabilities are enrolled in public schools (National Education Association, 2013), and growing numbers are being included in general education classrooms (Sciarra, 2004). Studies to identify variables related to the positive outcomes of school-to-work programs for students with disabilities such as, (a) using IEPs, (b) educating students alongside their nondisabled peers, and (c) documenting progress in employment-related skill areas have been conducted (Morgan, Ames, Loosli, Feng, & Taylor, 1995; Rusch, Enchelmaier & Kohler, 1994). Test et al. (2009) conducted a review of correlational research in secondary transition to identify “evidence-based predictors” in school programs, services, instruction, and policies that were positively correlated with better post-school outcomes in education, employment, and independent living. Sixteen in-school predictors of post-school success were identified: career awareness, community experiences, high school diploma status, inclusion in general education, independent living skills, interagency collaboration, occupational courses, paid employment/work experience, parental involvement, program of study, self-determination, social skills, student support, transition program, vocational education, and work study (Test et al., 2009).

Epstein and Van Voorhis’ theory of overlapping spheres of influence asserted that students learn more when parents, educators, and others in the community recognize their shared goals and responsibilities for students’ learning and work together, rather than alone (Epstein, 1987, 2001). The overlapping spheres of influence identified six types of involvement: parenting, communicating, volunteering, learning at home, decision making, and collaborating with the community (Epstein & Van Voorhis, 2010, p. 2).

School counselors tend to provide some services to students with disabilities consistent with their primary interventions of counseling, consultation, curriculum, and coordination, including individual, group, and career counseling (Milsom, 2002; Studer & Quigney, 2003). They also serve on, and provide feedback to, multidisciplinary teams that identify and serve students with disabilities; provide consultation and support to families; schedule needed classes and services; and assist with behavior modification plans (Helms & Katsiyannis, 1992; Milsom, 2002; Studer & Quigney, 2003).

Vocational rehabilitation counselors have a long history of working cooperatively with schools to establish practices and programs to facilitate transitions from school to adult life for students with disabilities (Fabian & MacDonald-Wilson, 2005; Hanley- Maxwell, Szymanski, & Owens-Johnson, 1998). Within the rehabilitation counseling field, there has been a consistent body of literature indicating that career counseling is a fundamental job task for vocational rehabilitation counselors (e.g., Emener & Rubin, 1980; Jaques, 1959; Leahy, Chan, & Saunders, 2003; Leahy, Shapson, & Wright, 1987; Leahy, Szymanski, & Linkowski, 1993). Counselors and transition specialists have long advocated that matching employment opportunities and the career interests of students with disabilities is an effective intervention to improve the employment outcomes of young adults (Fabian, Lent, & Willis, 1998; Jagger & Neukrug, 1992). Exploring employment expectations earlier in the transition process may allow students with disabilities to identify occupational areas that, in later stages of development, will provide them with both desirable employment and great economic outcomes (Estrada-Hernandez, Wadsworth, Nietupski, Warth, & Winslow, 2008).

Collaboration Model/Community Team

Berg-Weger and Schneider (1998) defined interdisciplinary collaboration as “an interpersonal process through which members of different disciplines contribute to a common product or goal” (p. 698). Inter-professional processes among one or more professionals from different disciplines engaged in work-related activities should represent five core components: (1) interdependence, (2) newly created professional activities, (3) flexibility, (4) collective ownership of goals, and (5) reflection on process (Bronstein, 2003). Interdependence refers to the occurrence of and reliance on interactions among professionals whereby each is dependent on the other to accomplish his or her goals and tasks (Bronstein, 2003). To function interdependently, professionals must have a clear understanding of the distinction between their own and their collaborating professionals’ roles and use them appropriately. Characteristics of interdependence include formal and informal time spent together, oral and written communication among professional colleagues, and respect for colleagues’ professional opinions and input (Bronstein, 2003).

Newly created professional activities refer to collaborative acts, programs, and structures that can achieve more than could be achieved by the same professionals acting independently. These activities maximize the expertise of each collaborator (Bronstein, 2003). Kagan (1992) identified newly created professional activities as a critical component of collaborative work when she defined collaboration as an act by which “an identifiable durable collaborative structure is built” (p. 60). Melaville and Blank (1992) echoed this, characterizing collaborative initiatives as creating fundamental changes in the way services are designed and delivered. Futhermore, Mattessich and Monsey (1992) noted that collaborators create unique purposes for their endeavors that do not replicate those of individual professionals or professional groups.

Flexibility extends beyond interdependence and refers to the deliberate occurrence of role-blurring (Bronstein, 2003). Behavior that characterizes flexibility includes reaching productive compromises in the face of disagreement and the alteration of roles as professionals respond creatively to what is called for. Mattessich and Monsey (1992) argued that flexibility is a critical component of collaboration and noted that successful collaborators exhibit adaptability, even under changing conditions.

Collective ownership of goals refers to shared responsibility in the entire process of reaching goals, including joint design, definition, development, and achievement of goals (Bronstein, 2003). This includes a commitment to client-centered care whereby professionals from different disciplines and clients and their families are all active in the process of goal attainment. To engage in collective ownership of goals, each professional must take responsibility for his or her part in success and failure and support constructive disagreement and deliberation among colleagues and clients (Bronstein, 2003). Reflection on process refers to collaborators’ attention to their process of working together. This includes collaborators thinking and talking about their working relationship and process and incorporating feedback to strengthen collaborative relationships and effectiveness (Bronstein, 2003).

The collaboration model emphasizes the need to provide students with an educational community that has the resources and personnel to meet their academic, social, emotional, and physical needs (Hamlet, Gergar & Schaefer, 2011), as well as employment opportunities. As students with disabilities and relevant family members share in the responsibility for career planning, as specified by IDEA (U. S. Department of Education, 2004), it is often incumbent that the community transition team meet to select, plan, process, and when necessary, reevaluate career information that is used in the planning process (Herbert, Lorenz, & Trusty, 2010). The community transition team focuses on helping students with disabilities transition from school to postsecondary education, employment, independent living, and adult services. Community transition teams identify common directions, develop action plans, solve problems, eliminate duplication of services, encourage interagency collaboration that will create community training and employment opportunities for students, and seek additional sources of support (financial, policy, etc.).

Community transition teams must be made up of a “representative membership”—that is, members who represent the inhabitants of the area they serve in terms of ethnicity, culture, socioeconomic level, occupation, gender, age, and disability (Halpern, Benz, & Lindstrom, 1992). The critical members for the team must include: a family/youth representative; one representative from each district or area educational agency (should include postsecondary, special, and general secondary education); vocational rehabilitation representative; employment representative; Social Security Administration representative; independent living representative; and adult agency providers. School counselors play a vital role as members of the team by helping all students in the areas of academic achievement, personal/social development, and career development, ensuring today’s students become the productive, well-adjusted adults of tomorrow (ASCA, 2014). Members of the transition team should protect the confidentiality of all information contained within a student’s Individualized Education Program (IEP) and have access only to those portions of the IEP that are essential for each individual to provide educational programming and/or services to the student (typically, the pertinent goals and objectives; Taub, 2006).

Professional School Counselors’ and Vocational Rehabilitation Counselors’ Roles

Although school and vocational rehabilitation counselors share similar education, goals, and values, they offer different areas of expertise consistent with the populations that they serve. While each professional brings his/her own expertise that is critical in working with students with disabilities, the similarity across training can result in duplicative services. However, the act of coordination and collaboration improves the chances of effectively serving students with disabilities as well as helps to avoid overlap of services, thus improving efficiency for all involved in transitional planning (Scarborough & Gilbride, 2006). The time spent in collaboration and coordination may actually save time, energy, and resources for the service providers (Scarborough & Gilbride, 2006).

School counselors serve a pivotal role in maximizing student success (Lapan, Gysbers, & Kayson, 2007; Stone & Dahir, 2006). School counselors support a safe learning environment and work to safeguard the human rights of all members of the school community (Sandhu, 2000). Furthermore, they address the needs of all students through culturally relevant prevention and intervention programs that are a part of a comprehensive school counseling program (ASCA, 2014; Lee, 2001). Individual counseling and group counseling are the most commonly performed activities school counselors provide to students with disabilities (Milsom, 2002; Studer & Quigney, 2003). Through individual counseling, the school counselor can build a therapeutic, supportive relationship and work to change the student’s negative self-image, depressed or anxious feelings, or relationship difficulties with peers (Tarver-Behring & Spagna, 2005). Group counseling can help the student learn to express feelings more appropriately and can help the student develop a positive self-concept, improve social skills and academic performance, and increase motivation (Tarver-Behring & Spagna, 2005). For instance, small group counseling can help improve student attendance, classroom behaviors, self- esteem, and attitudes toward self and others (Akos, 2004; Borders & Drury, 1992), and classroom guidance activities are effective in improving school behavior, attitudes toward school, and coping skills (Akos, 2004).

School counselors can help students with disabilities to build positive self-esteem by modeling appropriate ways to express feelings, teaching them how to think of alternative solutions to a problem, empowering students to be involved in the decision- making process, creating opportunities to learn positive behavior through rewards and recurring successful experiences, providing students with accurate information about their disability, and identifying others with the same disability who have succeeded (Pierangelo & Jacoby, 1996). School counselors can also aid in facilitating career maturity, career decisiveness, and appropriate career aspirations, all of which tend to fall in low ranges for students with disabilities, which has led to underemployment and unemployment of individuals with disabilities (Eisenman, 2003). Pity, low expectations, repulsion to physical abnormalities, misinformation, and other bias can preclude effective counseling (Baker, 1992).

Furthermore, school counselors can help teachers to be role models for the rest of the class in promoting social success for students with disabilities and can help them facilitate supportive peer activities such as peer pairing, cooperative work groups, and classroom social skills programs (Tarver-Behring & Spagna, 2005). School counselors can provide teachers with social skills strategies and programs for the classroom that focus on problem solving, conflict resolution, anger management, and friendship making (Tarver-Behring, Spagna, & Sullivan, 1998). For example, a student could benefit from clear classroom rules, rewards, and consistent consequences; journaling about feelings; bibliotherapy; discreet prompts from the teacher, such as a gentle touch, to help the student be aware of inappropriate behavior before it escalates; brainstorming various solutions and consequences about friendship problems; being paired with a high social status peer mentor in school activities; working on goal-oriented projects; and participating in activities with other students in areas in which he or she can be successful. Counselors can coordinate services with other specialists to help parents and teachers reorganize physical environments, remove barriers, and obtain special equipment to facilitate inclusion in all areas of the student’s life (Tarver-Behring & Spagna, 2005). Notwithstanding the challenges associated with students with disabilities transitioning from secondary education to postsecondary education, the percentage of college freshmen with a disability continues to increase (U. S. Department of Education, 2005). School counselors are integral in dispelling myths associated with access to the college environment for students with disabilities (Hamblet, 2014). School counselors can provide accurate information about disability services in college admission procedures and graduation requirements (Hamblet, 2014). Also, most postsecondary education institutions enrolling students with disabilities provide some level of services, supports, or accommodations to assist their access to education (National Council on Disability, 2003). Vocational Rehabilitation counselors can assist with the transitioning for school to college life or employment.

In most states, vocational rehabilitation counselors begin working with students with disabilities in high school to help coordinate transition services and planning (Scarborough & Gilbride, 2006). Although the extent of participation may vary depending on the requests and invitations from school personnel, the parents of students, or the responsibilities of the vocational rehabilitation counselor, the vocational rehabilitation counselor may participate in Individualized Education Plan meetings (Scarborough & Gilbride, 2006). Vocational rehabilitation counselors can discuss vocational and educational options with special education teachers and work with other school staff, including, on occasion, school counselors, who are also assisting the student (Scarborough & Gilbride, 2006). Through collaboration efforts, school counselors and vocational rehabilitation counselors serve as members of the transition team to assist students in increasing their knowledge of their disabilities, awareness of postsecondary support services, and their ability to self-advocate, all of which have been linked to greater success in postsecondary transitions (Milsom & Hartley, 2005; Skinner & Lindstrom, 2003).

All states must follow federal guidelines to determine general eligibility for vocational rehabilitation services. As indicated in the Vocational Rehabilitation Act (Section 7(20)(A) and 102(a)(1)), a person is eligible for services if he or she has “a physical or mental impairment which for that individual constitutes or results in a substantial impediment to employment; requires vocational rehabilitation services to prepare for, secure, retain, or regain employment; and can benefit in terms of an employment outcome from vocational rehabilitation” (Rehabilitation Services Administration, 2014). Once a student is found eligible for vocational rehabilitation services, the vocational rehabilitation counselor can provide or assist with obtaining many services that lead towards employment outcome. The rehabilitation counselor can provide vocational and psychosocial counseling; identify a vocational goal and employment resources; assist with understanding their disability; and identify barriers to employment related to the disability. The vocational rehabilitation process values independence, integration, and inclusion of people with and without disabilities in employment settings (Maki & Riggar, 2004). School counselors are not expected to know all about vocational rehabilitation eligibilities and policies; however, it is important for school counselors and vocational rehabilitation counselors to have open communication with permission from the student with a disability and his parents to discuss adult services, ongoing support, assistive technology, transportation, or funding to support post-high school training (Scarborough & Gilbride, 2006).

In order to facilitate employment opportunities, career assessment becomes an important tool in helping students develop effective career decision-making skills and achieve occupational aspirations (Cummings, Maddux, & Casey, 2000; Luzzo, Hitchings, Retish, & Shoemaker, 1999). The Individualized Plan for Employment (IPE) states the agreed upon work goal and outlines the services that are needed to obtain, maintain, or retain employment. These services may include, but are not limited to, vocational guidance and counseling, surgery or medical treatment, on-the-job training, postsecondary training (tuition, fees, books, etc.), work adjustment training, job coaching, equipment and tools to do a job, and job development and placement. Traditionally vocational rehabilitation counselors have knowledge and skills related to career development and work adjustment; vocational rehabilitation planning; occupational and labor market information; job-seeking skills development; job analysis, development, modification and placement strategies; supported employment; and post-employment services (Leahy, Muenzen, Saunders, & Strauser, 2009). Each person that applies for vocational rehabilitation services is treated as an individual; therefore, the services provided are different for each person based on the disability, work goal, barriers to employment, and financial need.

Vocational rehabilitation counselors can work with students with disabilities and their parents to provide them with career experiences and choices such as job shadowing, job tryouts, or internships (Estrada-Hernandez et al., 2008) while they are in high school. Vocational rehabilitation counselors should also work with parents to discuss interviewing skills and work skills; identify barriers to employment; address possible reasonable accommodations needed in the workplace; and provide information about employer’s expectation. As noted by Halpern (1994), students with disabilities in transition from school to work should participate in community based interventions that target the identification of their career preferences. These experiences will allow these students to develop good work ethics and positive work history that could lead them to economic success.

Consulting With Parents

A fundamental intervention of the school counselor in relation to disability services has been through consultation with parents and school personnel (Scarborough & Gilbride, 2006). It is important to understand the concerns that commonly arise for many parents of children with disabilities, such as grief, loss, and the “dream child”; safety concerns and “overprotectiveness”; attitudes of other parents and other children; friendships; potential for discounting child’s abilities; and transition services (Taub, 2006). Parents of children with disabilities may perceive that their children are more vulnerable to accidents and injuries as a result of their disabilities (Quinn, 1998). Parents may also worry about the potential for injury while using equipment in the science laboratory, art room, or library (Taub, 2006). Field trips and transportation may present other opportunities for concerns about safety and injury (Taub, 2006). In addition, parents may be concerned that school personnel might advertently injure the student due to a lack of knowledge about how to handle transfers in and out of a wheelchair, for example (Taub, 2006). It is important for the school counselor to respect these very real and serious parental concerns.

An important role for school counselors working with parents of students with disabilities is to encourage parents to help their children develop independence by not overprotecting them. School counselors can assist parents by advocating for school and community services, requesting appropriate modifications and aids, and offering supportive counseling (Tarver-Behring & Spagna, 2005). Finally, school counselors can offer support or referral services to parents in relation to specific difficulties and demands in the home: tutorial services to reduce parents’ stress surrounding schoolwork demands; assistance in developing schedules to help parents who are frustrated because of their student’s lack of organization; and referral of students to social organizations to address parents’ concerns about their children’s low self-esteem, social status, and long-term educational and career adjustment (Westman, 1990).

The IDEA required a statement of interagency responsibilities and linkages to ensure a continuity of services after students leave school (Wittenburg, Golden, & Fishman, 2002). A key challenge for professionals in developing effective transition services is an understanding that there is a difference between entitlement programs (free appropriate education) and adult eligibility programs (vocational rehabilitation services). Eligibility for adult services is more restrictive than IDEA, and many students who have received special education services may not be eligible for adult services (Scarborough & Gilbride, 2006). Some states also have an Order of Selection policy, which means that even some students found eligible for vocational rehabilitation services will be placed on a wait list and not receive services due to limited funding until all other persons with the most severe disabilities are first served (Scarborough & Gilbride, 2006). As students move from minors to adults (age 18), they need to understand that they are now responsible for signing papers and need to allow their parents access to any information if they require their help (McEachern & Kenny, 2007). This may cause some problems with parents if the student with a disability is still living at home and parents are paying for his/her daily living expenses or college education.

Multicultural Concerns

Cultural sensitivity should be considered in screening and referring students because a number of racial/ethnic subgroups have been misidentified for specific learning disabilities due to language differences, cultural mismatches in educational methodology, learning difficulties related to poverty, and cultural differences in behavioral expectations (American Youth Policy Forum and Center on Education Policy, 2002). Teamwork is needed to select topics, evaluate outcomes, and continually improve the school’s outreach to engage more diverse families in productive ways (Epstein & Van Voorhis, 2010). School counselors do not have to work alone on workshops for parents on student growth and development, student behavior, school policies, attendance, dropout prevention, credits required for graduation from high school, homework completion, academic programs, college and career planning, parent education classes, or other topics of importance for student success (Epstein & Van Voorhis, 2010). It is important to involve the community transition team members in the development and implementation of school activities, workshops, and other events at the school.

Conclusion

With limited funding and professionals being asked to do more with less money and staff, collaboration is an important strategy to assist and provide quality transition services for high school students with disabilities. School counselors and vocational rehabilitation counselors across the country can provide support to special education teachers and help keep students with disabilities from slipping through the cracks. Also, collaboration between school counselors and vocational rehabilitation counselors can help educate parents about entitlement versus eligibility programs, identify community resources, and provide education and employment services for students with disabilities without duplicating services. It is important that all parties are present at the community transition team meetings and committed to the success of high school students with disabilities.

Notes

1 The National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2), funded by the Department of Education’s Institute of Educational Sciences, is a 10-year study that documents the characteristics, experiences and outcomes of a nationally representative sample of 11,000 students with disabilities who were between the ages of 13 and 16 and receiving special education services in the seventh grade or higher in 2001.